A Brief Overview of Investigative Journalism

A Brief Overview of Investigative Journalism

This article relates to London Falling

Patrick Radden Keefe's London Falling is considered a work of investigative journalism. In this case, Keefe digs into the murky circumstances surrounding the death of 19-year-old Zac Brettler.

Investigative Reporters and Editors (IRE) is a nonprofit grassroots organization whose mission is to "create a forum in which journalists throughout the world could help each other by sharing story ideas, newsgathering techniques and news sources." The organization was the first to publish a definition of investigative journalism, which they characterize as "the reporting, through one's own initiative and work product, of matters important to readers, viewers, or listeners. In many cases, the subjects of the reporting wish the matters under scrutiny to remain undisclosed."

The individual often credited with being America's first investigative journalist was a woman: Nelly Bly. In the 1880s she went undercover, posing as a patient, to expose abuses in mental institutions, publishing her findings in Joseph Pulitzer's New York World in 1887. Other important works in this genre include Seymour Hersh's 1969 investigation into the My Lai massacre and the subsequent coverup; Woodward and Bernstein's 1972 uncovering of the Watergate break-in; and, most recently, New York Times reporters Manny Fernandez and Sarah Hurtes's reporting on allegations of sexual abuse by civil rights activist Cesar Chavez.

Although often associated with newspapers, books, too, can be works of investigative journalism. Upton Sinclair's The Jungle (1906), which revealed unsanitary practices in the meat-packing industry, may have been the first novel to be considered in this light. More recent nonfiction titles include John Carreyrou's Bad Blood (2018), which uncovered fraud surrounding biotech startup Theranos and its founder, Elizabeth Holmes, and An American Sickness by Elizabeth Rosenthal (2017), which took a close look at the financial incentives that have had a profound impact on the country's quality of healthcare.

Unlike traditional journalists, who generally cover immediate events and report on a wide range of issues, investigative journalists may take weeks, months, or even years to probe a single subject. They may choose their focus based on a tip or a leak, or they may stumble upon something interesting in their own research that they decide invites further scrutiny. Sometimes a specific topic is assigned by the journalist's supervisor—often a newspaper or magazine editor.

Once a topic is decided upon, journalists then must consider whether enough information can be gleaned to make a "minimum story"—something worth publishing—and whether the resources exist to fully investigate it. They must also assess risks, as attempts to expose corruption could put them in physical and/or legal jeopardy.

An investigative inquiry generally relies on three pillars of reporting: research, interviews, and observation. Reporters may spend many weeks poring through public records, court documents, and financial findings to uncover the facts in a case before they've got enough hard evidence to even begin asking questions.

The heart of investigative journalism is conducting in-depth interviews. As the Global Investigative Journalism Network puts it, "[E]very interview is a moment of truth-seeking. It is a critical moment during which one can easily miss an opportunity or, if all goes well, be rewarded with an unexpected and great revelation." Mining an individual for this type of information requires skill and quick thinking, often going "off script" to extract information from an unwilling subject. As journalists uncover more information, conversations may become confrontational as hidden or contradictory evidence comes to light. Keefe's book relies heavily on such interviews for the final pieces he needs to make sense of Zac's death.

Finally, investigative journalists may use direct observation to uncover information. In addition to simply watching subjects (openly or covertly), they might undertake site visits (such as viewing a workplace or the scene of a crime) or reconstructing events.

Once reporters feel they have enough to produce a story, their facts must be thoroughly checked. Sometimes publications have a staff for this, but often journalists themselves are responsible. All facts of the case must not only be documented, but also provable. Since this type of exposé is generally problematic for the parties involved, lawsuits are quite common; journalists therefore can't afford to include unsubstantiated data.

Some sources cite a significant drop in investigative content over the past few years as traditional news outlets like newspapers and magazines are replaced by digital content. Media budgets are tightening, too, leaving fewer funds available for content that requires a significant investment of time and resources. Although many predict the death of this genre, others claim it's gradually adapting by embracing digital technologies and obtaining funding from other sources, like nonprofits and universities. The Center for Investigative Reporting, for example, offers a listener-supported investigative radio show and podcast with the mission to "hold the powerful accountable by reporting about everything from racial and social injustices to threats to public safety and democracy."

Photograph of a journalist at work, courtesy of Esther Vargas, CC BY-SA 2.0

Filed under People, Eras & Events

This article relates to London Falling. It first ran in the April 8, 2026 issue of BookBrowse Recommends.